2.2.1 Attentional control as the potential mediator of self-construal on cognitive bias.

Attentional control, an essential element of executive functioning, orchestrates our focus, perception, and cognitive processing, thereby playing a critical role in mental health outcomes. It is the cognitive ability to manage what we pay attention to and what we ignore, with significant implications for our emotional well-being [23].

Emerging research underscores the impact of self-construal on attentional processes. For instance, individuals with a predominantly InterSC are found to have a broader visual attention field, suggesting a more comprehensive scanning of the social environment [24]. This expansive attentional scope may be adaptive in collectivist cultures where social harmony is paramount but could also contribute to heightened sensitivity to social threats, which in turn may influence mental health [25]. Furthermore, attention to interpersonal context, a characteristic of InterSC, can impede the completion of tasks that require focus away from social cues [26].

Given the association between attentional biases and mental health disorders such as anxiety and depression, understanding the mediating role of attentional control within the self-construal framework can inform targeted mental health interventions. We hypothesize that attentional control mediates the relationship between self-construal and cognitive biases, potentially offering a pathway to modify attentional biases in mental health contexts.

Attention control is also a function of working memory that adjusts attentional resources in response to task demands [23]. Its role in regulating responses to threat-related information [27] is particularly relevant to mental health, as it can either contribute to stress and anxiety or protect against them. Cognitive bias modification research reveals that bolstering attentional control can recalibrate cognitive biases [8,28]. Interestingly, changes in attentional biases following modification procedures appear to occur independently of changes in attentional control [29].

Therefore, we propose a nuanced cognitive mechanism whereby self-construal influences cognitive biases via attentional control. We hypothesize:

H2a: IndSC will be positively associated with attentional control. In turn, enhanced attentional control will correlate with greater attention to positive information (API) and reduced attention to negative information (ANI), reflecting a protective cognitive bias conducive to positive mental health outcomes.

H2b: Conversely, InterSC will be negatively associated with attentional control. This diminished attentional control is expected to be associated with less attention to positive information (API) and greater attention to negative information (ANI), potentially indicating a cognitive bias that may be a risk factor for negative mental health outcomes.

2.2.2 Motivation as the potential mediator of self-construal on cognitive bias. Self-esteem as the Potential Mediator of Self-Construal on Cognitive Bias.

The interplay between self-construal and self-esteem is a critical factor in cognitive bias formation. Individuals with a high IndSC tend to report higher self-esteem, focusing on self-worth and personal accomplishments [30–32]. This tendency is reflected in self-reports where independents often rate their self-esteem more positively than interdependents, although this difference may not be as pronounced in implicit self-esteem measures [33]. High self-esteem is correlated with greater receptivity to positive social feedback and openness to social interactions [34]. Therefore, this heightened self-esteem in IndSC individuals is associated with a cognitive bias toward positive information [35], fostering a protective mental health environment.

Conversely, InterSC is often correlated with lower self-esteem, due in part to a focus on social harmony and adaptability rather than personal achievement [9,33]. For example, Chinese university students demonstrated a reliance on competence self-esteem under independent priming conditions, while interdependent priming conditions led to a preference for self-esteem based on social relationships [36]. InterSC was positively associated with relationship harmony; IndSC was positively correlated with self-esteem [37]. This variation in self-esteem might influence cognitive processing, leading InterSC individuals to pay more attention to negative information [35], potentially heightening vulnerability to mental health issues. This is evident in various cognitive and emotional responses, such as attentional biases towards rejection in individuals with low self-esteem [38] and faster processing of negative emotions [39].

Hypothesis H3a: IndSC will be positively associated with self-esteem, which in turn will be positively associated with API and negatively associated with ANI.

Hypothesis H3b: Conversely, InterSC will be negatively associated with self-esteem, which will lead to decreased API and increased ANI.

Need to Belong as the Potential Mediator of Self-Construal on Cognitive Bias

The need to belong is a fundamental human drive, with marked variations based on self-construal. influencing their cognitive processing [9]. Individuals with a strong InterSC typically prioritize maintaining harmonious relationships and seek to empathize and connect with others, as highlighted in various cultural studies [9,40,41]. Individuals influenced by InterSC values demonstrate a stronger motivation for acceptance, conformity, and communal cohesion [42,43]. This heightened need to belong in InterSC individuals may lead to a cognitive bias that emphasizes negative social stimuli. For instance, InterSC individuals may exhibit a cognitive bias that de-emphasizes self-enhancement in favor of maintaining social harmony [44]. This is reflected in a lonely individuals, with heightened sensitivity to social threats [45] and potential rejection [46]. Importantly, the need to belong is closely connected to loneliness, with those reporting a stronger need to belong also experiencing higher levels of loneliness [47], for example, students who exhibited a higher need to belong were also experiencing higher levels of loneliness [48].

On the other hand, individuals with a strong IndSC might exhibit lower levels of affiliation motivation [49,50], focusing more on individual achievements and personal attributes. This may lead to a cognitive bias towards positive stimuli and away from negative social stimuli.

Hypothesis H4a: IndSC will be negatively associated with the need to belong, which will be inversely related to API and positively related to ANI.

Hypothesis H4b: In contrast, InterSC will be positively associated with the need to belong, which will lead to a decrease in API and an increase in ANI.

2.2.3 Emotion regulation (cognitive reappraisal) as a mediator. Self-Construal and Emotion Regulation.

Emotion regulation, a fundamental aspect of human psychology, encompasses strategies for managing and modulating emotional responses. Self-construal significantly influences how individuals perceive and regulate their emotions, as posited by Markus and Kitayama [9]. This study focuses on cognitive reappraisal, a strategy that entails reinterpreting emotional stimuli to alter emotional responses.

Empirical studies have shown that emotion regulation strategies systematically vary according to one’s self-construal [9,51–53]. Those with a high InterSC often rely on strategies like expressive suppression to align their emotional responses with collective cultural norms [54–56]. In contrast, individuals with a predominant IndSC are more inclined towards strategies that foster positive emotional experiences, as typically observed in Western cultures [54,55,57]. The consequences of expressive suppression differ between individuals from independent and interdependent cultures, with negative mental health outcomes for the former and potential mental health benefits for the latter [58–61].

Cognitive Reappraisal and Cognitive Bias

Cognitive reappraisal, a crucial emotion regulation strategy, involves reshaping the interpretation of emotional stimuli, which can significantly alter emotional outcomes and attentional focus [62–64]. The effectiveness and application of cognitive reappraisal can differ across cultures, influencing the ways emotions are processed and expressed [65].

The relationship between cognitive reappraisal and cognitive biases is both complex and profound. By modifying the interpretation of emotional stimuli, cognitive reappraisal can significantly influence emotional responses, thus impacting cognitive biases [66–68]. Furthermore, cognitive biases have been linked to the use of emotion regulation strategies, with cognitive reappraisal reducing negative emotions by altering stimulus meaning and attention distribution [66], thereby mitigating negative attentional biases [69]. Research on individuals with social anxiety disorder also suggests that cognitive reappraisal is associated with positive interpretations of ambiguous social information [70]. This suggests that cognitive reappraisal could serve as a critical link between self-construal and the formation of cognitive biases.

Hypothesis H5a: We hypothesize that cognitive reappraisal mediates the relationship between self-construal and cognitive biases. Specifically, individuals with IndSC, who are inclined to utilize cognitive reappraisal, are expected to demonstrate a bias towards processing positive emotional stimuli and mitigating the impact of negative information.

Hypothesis H5b: In contrast, individuals with InterSC, who may lean more towards suppression strategies, are likely to exhibit cognitive biases that favor the processing of negative emotional stimuli, potentially due to their heightened focus on maintaining social harmony and avoiding conflict.

3.1.1 Ethics statement.

Ethical approval for this study was granted by the Academic Ethics Committee of Chongqing Technology and Business University, adhering to rigorous ethical standards for conducting mental health research. Participants were thoroughly informed about the research objectives and their rights, including the freedom to withdraw at any time, before providing written informed consent.

A focused screening was implemented to rule out biases due to undiagnosed mental health conditions, utilizing a detailed questionnaire on participants’ mental health history and symptoms, with an emphasis on anxiety and depression. This process ensured the cognitive biases identified were directly related to self-construal. Throughout the study, our commitment to ethical research safeguarded the participants’ well-being and privacy.

3.1.2 Sampling methodology.

Purposive Sampling: Chongqing was selected for its diverse socio-cultural milieu, providing a dynamic urban setting reflective of modern Chinese society.

Stratified Random Sampling:

University Selection: Participants were recruited from two institutions: Chongqing Technology and Business University, a comprehensive university, and Chongqing Second Normal College, a specialized professional university, to encompass a wide range of educational environments.

Major Selection: Various academic majors were randomly selected within these institutions to ensure disciplinary diversity.

Class Selection: Specific classes within these majors were randomly chosen to enhance sample representativeness.

Survey Subjects: All students in the selected classes were invited to participate, promoting inclusive participation.

Formal sample size and power calculations were not conducted prior to participant recruitment due to the exploratory nature of this study, which examines the nuanced relationship between self-construal and cognitive biases in mental health contexts. Nevertheless, the achieved sample size of 748 participants far exceeds typical requirements, ensuring substantial statistical power to identify significant findings across the study’s analyses. The hybrid sampling strategy, encompassing a wide educational and disciplinary spectrum from two distinct types of universities in Chongqing, guarantees a diverse and representative sample. This approach enhances the reliability and generalizability of our findings, effectively compensating for the initial absence of sample size and power calculations.

3.1.3 Participant recruitment.

The study was conducted from September 8, 2021, to November 30, 2021, involving 748 undergraduate students (243 males, 505 females) aged 19 to 22 years (Mean = 20.5, SD = 1.1). The sample included 396 students (52.9%) from the comprehensive university and 352 (47.1%) from the professional university, with participants mainly from Science and Engineering (271, 36.2%), Public Administration (212, 28.3%), Preschool Education (94, 12.6%), Business Administration (87, 11.6%), and Economics (84, 11.2%). The study involved students from various academic years, including sophomores (289, 38.6%), juniors (318, 42.5%), and seniors (141, 18.9%).

Recruitment was conducted via on-campus promotions and during mental health classes, emphasizing the study’s relevance to mental health. All participants provided written informed consent, in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional review board, prior to their inclusion in the study. They were assured of the confidentiality of their responses and the option to withdraw or omit questionnaire sections at any time. All data were anonymized to maintain participant confidentiality.

3.2.1 Self-construal.

The 24-item Self-Construal Scale (SCS) by Singelis [71], offering separate scores for Independent Self-Construal (IndSC) and Interdependent Self-Construal (InterSC), was used. This scale is relevant to mental health research as it allows for the exploration of how individualistic and collectivistic orientations influence cognitive and emotional processes in the context of mental health. Participants rated their responses on a 7-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). Reliability assessments in previous research have reported Cronbach’s alpha values of .73 and .74 for the IndSC scale and .69 and .70 for the InterSC scale [71]. In our current sample, the IndSC (α = .66) and InterSC (α = .71) subscales exhibited commendable reliability.

3.2.2 Attentional control.

The 20-item Attentional Control Scale (ACS) [72] assesses the ability to focus attention amidst distractions, a crucial aspect in understanding cognitive processing and its implications for mental health, particularly in stress and anxiety disorders. The total score provides an overall measure of attentional control, while two subscales, namely the shifting subscale (evaluating the ability to switch attention) and the focusing subscale (reflecting the capacity to concentrate in the presence of distraction), offer a more detailed assessment. Responses were recorded on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = almost never; 2 = sometimes; 3 = often; 4 = always). We employed the Chinese version of the ACS [73], which has exhibited robust reliability and validity in previous studies involving Chinese college students. Within our current sample, the total scale demonstrated a Cronbach’s alpha of .79, with subscale reliabilities of .73 (focusing) and .67 (shifting).

3.2.3 Self-esteem.

Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale [74], a widely accepted measure, was employed to evaluate self-esteem levels. Self-esteem is a significant factor in various mental health outcomes, including depression and anxiety, making it a vital component in our study. This scale consists of 10 items, each rated on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree), with higher scores indicating higher self-esteem. Reverse scoring was applied to appropriate items, and the scores from all items were aggregated to yield a total self-esteem score. The internal consistency of this scale within our current study was excellent, exhibiting a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .88.

3.2.4 Cognitive appraisal.

The 10-item Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) [63], particularly the Reappraisal subscale, was used to measure cognitive reappraisal strategies. Given the importance of emotion regulation in mental health, understanding its role in cognitive processing is critical. Ratings were provided on a 7-point Likert scale, with responses reflecting typical experience and expression of emotions (from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). Utilization of the ERQ within Asian youth populations has reaffirmed the original factorial structure of the instrument [75]. In our current sample, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for this scale was excellent at .84.

3.2.5 Need to belong.

The 10-item Need to Belong Scale [76] was utilized to assess participants’ desire for social acceptance and group inclusion, factors that are closely linked to mental health issues such as social anxiety and loneliness. Responses on the Need to Belong scale were recorded on a 7-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (7). The score of need to belong is formed by averaging the scores of all items, the higher the score, the higher the level of need to belong. Previous research by Pickett et al. [77] has employed this scale to examine sensitivity to social cues, showing sufficient reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.83. In our present study, the scale exhibited a Cronbach’s alpha of .79.

3.2.6 Cognitive bias.

The 22-item Attention to Positive and Negative Information (APNI) scale [1], comprising the API and ANI subscales, was used to assess cognitive biases. This scale is particularly relevant for mental health research as it provides insights into how individuals differentially process emotional information, a key aspect in understanding various psychological conditions. Participants provided responses on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (very untrue of me) to 5 (very true of me), indicating the degree to which they attend to positive and negative information. Importantly, the low correlation between attention to positive and negative information attests to the independence of these two constructs [1]. Due to its practicality, the APNI scale has been widely utilized since its inception [78,79]. For this study, we employed the Chinese version [80], which has demonstrated sufficient reliability and validity in Chinese college students. In our current sample, the Cronbach’s coefficients for API and ANI were 0.80 and 0.76, respectively.

5.2.1 Attentional control.

Attentional control exhibited a differential association with IndSC and InterSC, supporting our hypothesis about its mediating role. We found that IndSC correlates with heightened attentional control, suggesting an inclination towards efficient cognitive processing and possibly a reduced susceptibility to stress and anxiety. InterSC, however, was linked to a reduced attentional control, hinting at a potential vulnerability to distraction by social stimuli, which could influence emotional well-being. The finding aligns with the notion that individuals with a relational-contextual cognitive style, typical of InterSC, might overly focus on relationship dynamics, potentially at the cost of cognitive resources needed for other tasks [26]. The negative relationship between attentional control and ANI is particularly revealing; it suggests a protective mechanism that diverts focus from potentially distressing stimuli.

In the broader context of cultural psychology, these results underline the importance of attentional mechanisms in shaping the cognitive effects of self-construal. They suggest that enhancing attentional control might be a key strategy in psychological interventions tailored for individuals with different cultural backgrounds and self-construal orientations.

5.2.2 Self-esteem.

In line with theoretical predictions, our findings revealed that students with a high degree of IndSC reported elevated levels of self-esteem. This heightened self-esteem correlated with an increased API and decreased ANI, resonating with Lam’s research on the linkage between independent orientation, positive self-perception, and mental health outcomes [83]. Similarly, Kwan et al. have delineated the mediating role of global self-esteem between independence and life satisfaction [84].

Contrasting with expectations, our data did not show self-esteem mediating the effects of InterSC on API and ANI. This divergence from prior studies (e.g., [84] may stem from our focus on individual self-esteem without a corresponding emphasis on relational self-esteem, which can be particularly salient in collectivist cultures like China, where interpersonal relationships heavily influence self-worth [85]. These insights suggest that self-construals may impact cognitive biases through the lens of self-esteem in culturally specific ways, and need for a deeper investigation into the multifaceted nature of self-esteem. Nevertheless, our results indirectly suggest that individuals with InterSC may derive their self-esteem from harmonious interpersonal relations, while those with IndSC may base it on individual accomplishments, in line with Hannover et al. and Hu et al. [33,37].

Our study contributes to the broader discourse on self-esteem in collectivist societies, proposing that individual accomplishments may elevate self-esteem and consequently skew cognitive processing towards positive stimuli. On the other hand, individuals with a strong InterSC may derive self-esteem from social harmony, which might not translate into a significant impact on cognitive biases as hypothesized. This nuanced understanding calls for a more differentiated approach in mental health interventions, taking into account the individual and relational aspects of self-esteem.

5.2.3 need to belong.

research supports the hypothesis that the need to belong plays a significant role in mediating the impact of self-construal on cognitive biases. Students with a stronger IndSC orientation exhibited a negative influence on cognitive bias when a pronounced need for social connectedness was present, corroborating the findings of Gabriel et al. [10], which suggest that reminders of social relationships may not bolster the cognitive bias toward positive information for those who value independence. Furthermore, He et al. [86] noted that individuals who highly value independence often place less reliance on others for their social satisfaction, underscoring a potential strategy to enhance positive cognitive biases in mental health interventions: by decreasing the emphasis on belonging for those with an IndSC orientation.

Conversely, InterSC individuals showed an increased need to belong, which was associated with a broader attentional bias encompassing both positive and negative stimuli. This pattern of results suggests that for those who emphasize relational connectedness, a broadened scope of information processing is essential for managing social interactions, a concept supported by the work of DeWall and Richman [87] and Baumeister and Leary [88]. This increased sensitivity to social cues is a double-edged sword: it may contribute to well-being in supportive social environments but could also lead to heightened vulnerability in contexts of social exclusion or conflict.

The findings indicate that the need to belong may have mood-congruent effects for those with a strong InterSC, echoing previous research which suggests that fostering interpersonal connections can be beneficial for such individuals [10]. Therefore, interventions that skillfully leverage the need to belong could enhance positive cognitive biases while also managing negative biases, which is particularly relevant for mental health strategies aimed at individuals with a strong InterSC.

5.2.4 Cognitive reappraisal.

Our results suggest that both IndSC and InterSC are associated with the use of cognitive reappraisal strategies among Chinese college students, albeit with different outcomes. This finding aligns partially with our hypotheses and highlights the complex role of cognitive reappraisal in emotional regulation.

Students with an IndSC orientation, who typically value personal goals and achievements, may use cognitive reappraisal to focus on positive aspects of a situation, thus enhancing their API. This utilization of cognitive reappraisal can be understood as a strategy to maintain self-consistency and reduce cognitive dissonance, which is consistent with the self-construal theory and Western literature on the subject [9]. Conversely, those with an InterSC orientation appear to use cognitive reappraisal to navigate social relationships and meet situational demands, which may lead to a more balanced attention to both positive and negative information.

The cultural context of contemporary China, where individualism and collectivism coexist [89], may contribute to the broad application of cognitive reappraisal across different self-construals. This cultural blend reflects a unique adaptability in emotional regulation strategies, which can be a valuable asset in managing the complex emotional landscape of modern society [90].

Interestingly, cognitive reappraisal was found to enhance both API and ANI, suggesting that it can be a versatile tool in emotion regulation, potentially amplifying both positive and negative cognitive biases. This versatility emphasizes the importance of context in the application of cognitive reappraisal strategies. For instance, positive reappraisal of ego-focused emotions may boost API for those with high IndSC, while those with high InterSC might experience increased ANI if they suppress these emotions in favor of maintaining social harmony [91].

Our findings underscore the importance of culturally informed interventions that consider individual differences in self-construal. Interventions could be tailored to help individuals with an IndSC to maximize the benefits of cognitive reappraisal for positive emotions, while assisting those with an InterSC in managing the potential drawbacks of focusing on negative social cues.